Techniques to Increase EV Battery Life

Battery temperature adjustment system for electric vehicles to prevent battery deterioration. The system has a battery, cooling device and control system. When the vehicle is connected to an external power source, the control system selects either the battery or external power to cool the battery based on a deterioration sensitivity map. If cooling with external power would cause more deterioration than using battery power, it cools with battery power.

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Battery charging method to improve battery life by reducing expansion force during charging. The method involves adjusting the charge rate when the battery's state of charge (SOC) reaches a certain range where expansion force is maximized. The charge rate is lowered when SOC is close to the range to reduce expansion force and prolong battery life. When SOC exceeds the range, the charge rate is raised to ensure efficiency. This optimizes charging near the expansion limit to extend battery cycle life.

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Electrodes for energy storage systems with improved performance and cycle life. The electrodes are made of materials like silicon, carbon-sulfur, lithium or graphene-silicon composites, coated with parylene. The parylene coating acts as a barrier to prevent contact between the electrode and the electrolyte. This reduces capacity fade and degradation from reactions between the electrode and electrolyte. The parylene coating also contains polysulfides in lithium-sulfur batteries to improve cycle life.

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Optimizing the operating lifetime of an energy storage system like a vehicle battery pack by monitoring parameters like temperature and voltage that indicate cell degradation. When a parameter approaches a threshold indicating end-of-life, the system heats the battery pack to extend its performance and lifetime.

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Apparatus for diagnosing the state of a vehicle battery and presenting measures to suppress battery degradation. The apparatus analyzes the battery usage history and presents suitable suppression measures for factors causing degradation. If an alternative measure doesn't meet certain criteria, it is prohibited from being presented. This prevents presenting ineffective measures that could restrict vehicle use without benefit. By selectively presenting only suitable measures, battery degradation can be suppressed without reducing the vehicle's value.

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A battery management system that balances battery life and charge rate requirements for electric vehicles. The system uses a multi-stage charging strategy with discharging and subcharging in addition to main charging. The charging rate targets are set to maintain an average low rate during the overall charging duration. This reduces battery degradation while allowing higher rates at the end to meet vehicle needs. The discharging uses battery output for vehicle functions like heating or cooling instead of wasting it.

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Mobile electric vehicle charging that accounts for battery health and state to optimize charging and discharging between vehicles. The system monitors battery cell states and identifies cells beyond a threshold for remediation. These cells are continued to be used to degrade further. This targeted cell selection allows replacing only some cells instead of all when they reach end of life. It also enables balancing charge distribution between cells to prevent uneven degradation. The system uses battery metrics and historical data to make charging decisions based on cell health.

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A thermal management system for electric and hybrid vehicles that efficiently controls temperatures of vehicle components like the battery, powertrain, and cabin while reducing packaging size and cost compared to separate systems. The system uses a flexible thermal unit (FTU) that integrates components for controlling coolant and refrigerant flow between systems like the battery, drivetrain, and cabin air. This allows thermal management of multiple subsystems from a single device, reducing packaging requirements and costs while increasing function and performance.

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The accurate prediction of remaining useful life (RUL) is crucial in order to reasonably and efficiently utilize lithium-ion batteries (LiBs). In this paper, a construction method periodic time series applied the degradation data LiBs address issues insufficient training smooth RUL interval based on trend filtering segmentation fuzzy information granulation. for used form new dataset from original data, which fusion model, by combining variational mode decomposition (VMD) gated recurrent unit (GRU), as model LiBs. Moreover, effectiveness advantage proposed paper was verified analyzed utilizing CALCE battery NCA dataset.

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Accurate estimation of the state health (SOH) and remaining useful life (RUL) lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) is critical for ensuring battery reliability safety in applications such as electric vehicles energy storage systems. However, existing methods developed estimating SOH RUL LiBs often rely on full-cycle charging data, which are difficult to obtain engineering practice. To bridge this gap, paper proposes a novel data-driven method estimate only using partial curve features. Key features extracted from constant voltage (CV) process relaxation, validated through Pearson correlation analysis SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) interpretability. A hybrid framework combining CatBoost particle swarm optimization-support vector regression (PSO-SVR) developed. Experimental validation public datasets demonstrates superior performance methodology described above, with an root mean square error (RMSE) absolute (MAE) below 1.42% 0.52% relative (RE) under 1.87%. The proposed also exhibits robustness computational efficiency, making it suitable management systems (BMSs) LiBs.

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Enhanced Battery Management Systems (BMS) are essential for improving operational efficacy and safety within Electric Vehicles (EVs), especially in tropical climates where traditional systems encounter considerable performance constraints. This research introduces a novel two-tiered deep learning framework that utilizes two-stage Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) precise prediction of battery voltage SoC. The first tier employs LSTM-1 forecasts individual cell voltages across full-scale 120-cell Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) pack using multivariate time-series data, including history, vehicle speed, current, temperature, load metrics, derived from dynamometer testing. Experiments simulate real-world urban driving, with speeds 6 km/h to 40 variations 0, 10, 20%. second uses LSTM-2 SoC estimation, designed handle temperature-dependent fluctuations high-temperature environments. cascade design allows the system capture complex temporal inter-cell dependencies, making it effective under variable-load Empirical validation demonstrates 15% improvement estimation accuracy over methods driving co... Read More

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Lithium-ion batteries are an indispensable component of numerous contemporary applications, such as electric vehicles and renewable energy systems. However, accurately predicting their remaining service life is a significant challenge due to the complexity degradation patterns time series data. To tackle these challenges, this study introduces novel Multi-Scale Time Attention (MSTA) mechanism designed enhance modeling both short-term fluctuations long-term trends in battery performance. This integrated with Bidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit (BiGRU) develop BiGRU-MSTA framework. framework effectively captures multi-scale temporal features enhances prediction accuracy, even limited training The model evaluated via two sets experiments. First, using NASA lithium-ion dataset, experimental results demonstrate that proposed outperforms LSTM, BiGRU, CNN-LSTM, BiGRU-Attention models across all evaluation metrics. Second, experiments conducted on CALCE dataset not only examine impact varying scales within MSTA but also compare against state-of-the-art architectures Transformer LSTMTransfo... Read More

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Lithium-ion batteries experience nonlinear degradation characteristics during long-term operation. Accurate estimation of their remaining useful life (RUL) is significant importance for early fault diagnosis and residual value evaluation. However, existing RUL prediction approaches often suffer from limited accuracy insufficient specificity. To address these limitations, this study proposes an methodology based on Gaussian process regression, which incorporates pattern recognition auxiliary features derived knee points. First, 9 health-related are extracted the first 100 charge/discharge cycles battery. Based features, clustering classification techniques employed to categorize into three distinct patterns. Moreover, feature assessed identify eliminate redundant indicators, thereby enhancing relevance set prediction. Subsequently, each pattern, GPR-based models with composite kernel functions constructed by integrating point positions corresponding slopes. The model hyperparameters further optimized through particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm improve adaptability generalizati... Read More

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Preventing output limit of a battery in a vehicle by selectively raising the battery temperature based on the state of charge (SOC) and temperature during driving and restart. A method of preventing output limit of a battery of a vehicle includes monitoring the battery SOC and temperature while driving, determining the likelihood of output limit based on a map, and selectively increasing the battery temperature if output limit is likely. This prevents output limit when the SOC decreases in cold temperatures.

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Thermal stress mitigation system for refuse vehicles to prevent damage to energy storage and generation devices due to thermal loading, cycling, and events. The system uses a thermal stress mitigation substance deployed by nozzles on the vehicle body. Sensors detect thermal stress on the devices and a controller decides when to deploy the substance based on threshold exceedance. This provides localized cooling to mitigate thermal stress on the devices during operation.

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Thermal management system for electric vehicle batteries that allows individual cooling or heating of different zones within the battery to optimize performance and lifespan. The system uses multiple distinct circuits, each associated with a cooling zone, with independent flow control valves. A controller ranks the zones by temperature and adjusts the valves to balance cooling and heating based on the hottest and coldest zones. This provides customized cooling/heating to prevent hot spots and improve overall battery temperature management.

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A secondary battery with improved thermal management to prevent overheating and extend battery life. The battery has a unique sheath design with a thick metal layer making up 50-70% of the total sheath thickness. The metal layer provides high thermal conductivity to efficiently dissipate heat generated during charging and discharging. This reduces the internal battery temperature without adding bulk. The remaining sheath thickness is non-metal insulation layers.

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Battery array design for electric vehicle packs that integrates roll-bonded cold plates into the battery array itself rather than using separate external cold plates. The roll-bonded cold plates are formed by joining two metal sheets along a bonded seam. This allows the cold plates to be integrated into the battery array support structure to directly manage the thermal performance of the battery cells. It reduces cost and complexity compared to separate cold plates. The roll-bonded plates can form one or more sides of the array structure.

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A detection system to monitor battery pack heat insulation performance in electric vehicles. The system derives a heat insulation performance value based on battery temperature changes and environmental temperatures during vehicle stops. If the derived value falls below a reference, it indicates decreased insulation. This is detected and an output provided to alert the user that insulation is deteriorating.

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This review examines recent advancements in lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology for extreme conditions, focusing on applications electric vehicles, renewable energy, defense, and remote sensing. We explore innovative electrode electrolyte designs that enhance performance at temperatures, addressing challenges like freezing increased impedance. The highlights the development of novel electrolytes, including high-entropy formulations, fast-charging electrodes. Emphasizing sustainability resilience, we aim to inspire near-future research LIBs capable meeting demands operational scenarios, space exploration. analysis provides insights perspectives improving LIB reliability across challenging applications.

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<title>Abstract</title> Li-Ion batteries have become essential for space missions as secondary powersources due to their high performance and power density over the past twodecades. However, variations in cells characteristics of a battery pack can leadto reduced overall capacity time. To address this issue, various balancingmethods been developed extend life. This article presentsa space-qualified passive balancer that utilizes commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components. Its design is particularly suited applications,emphasizing low consumption, efficiency, tolerating harsh spaceradiation environment. A incorporating proposed cellbalancer has successfully deployed microsatellite recently launched intolow Earth orbit (LEO). The satellites housekeeping data demonstrate effectivenessof balancer, maintaining cell voltages within specified limits up toone year after launch. Notably, suggested reduce state ofcharge (SOC) by 1% per orbit, contributing enhanced longevity.

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LiFePO4 batteries need a battery management system (BMS) to improve performance, extend their lifespan, and maintain safety by utilizing advanced monitoring, control, optimization techniques. This paper presents the design, development, implementation of an intelligent (i-BMS) that integrates real-time monitoring control batteries. The was extensively tested using multiple datasets, results show able temperature within set range, balance cell voltages, distribute energy according load prioritization. It uses fuzzy logic approach effectively manage farm requirements. Additionally, proposed method embedded three-level prioritization algorithm woven into rule allocate dynamically among essential, regular, non-essential loads.

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With the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), optimizing their charging and discharging strategies to improve energy efficiency extend battery life has become a focal point current research. Traditional often fail adequately consider batterys state health (SOH), resulting in accelerated aging decreased efficiency. In response, this paper proposes safe reinforcement learningbased optimization method for EV strategies, aimed at minimizing costs while accounting SOH. First, novel status prediction model based on physics-informed hybrid neural networks (PHNN) is designed. Then, decision-making problem, considering status, formulated as constrained Markov decision process, an interior-point policy (IPO) algorithm long short-term memory (LSTM) proposed solve it. The filters out that violate constraints by introducing logarithmic barrier function. Finally, experimental results demonstrate significantly enhances maintaining maximum economic benefits during process. This research provides solution intelligent personalized EVs, which great significance promoting sustainable de... Read More

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Fast-charging technology for lithium-ion batteries is of great significance in reducing charging time and enhancing user experience. However, during fast charging, the imbalance among battery cells can affect overall performance available capacity pack. Moreover, efficiency not only limited by itself but also closely related to optimization strategy. To address batteries, this paper proposes a method based on deep reinforcement learning. First, learning model constructed, aiming minimize SOC balancing cost, with constraints voltage, temperature, SOC, SOH. The employs deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) algorithm integrated reward centralization entropy regularization mechanisms, dynamically adjust current achieve an optimal balance between health. Experimental results indicate that proposed enhances efficiency, contributes extending life, supports safety process. Compared traditional constant-current constant-voltage (CCCV) strategy, improved DDPG strategy reduces total 60 s from 540 470 s. Furthermore, compared basic method, shows clear advantage efficiency.

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The aging effect weakens the capacity of lithium batteries, seriously affecting performance electric vehicles. Developing state-of-health estimation technology for batteries can help to optimize charging and discharging strategies This study investigates use partial discharge data SOH address unstable output traditional models when using under low-voltage conditions. first used DoppelGANger network generate artificially synthesized data. After augmentation process, we trained temporal convolutional construct a data-driven model. Finally, model was evaluated three indicators: RMSE, MAPE, delta. proposed method improved five kinds operating conditions in seven testing scenarios compared with models. experimental results provide practical solution estimation.

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The capacity of Lithium-ion batteries degrades over the time, making accurate prediction their Remaining Useful Life (RUL) crucial for maintenance and product lifespan design. However, diverse aging mechanisms, changing working conditions cell-to-cell variation lead to inhomogeneous cell complicated life prediction. In this work, a data-driven algorithm based on stacked Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) encoderdecoders is proposed RUL encoder upstream decoder form an autoencoder framework feature extraction. downstream encoderdecoder To enhance generalization during training, Maximum Mean Discrepancy (MMD) loss included in framework. similarity patterns analyzed splitting source target datasets through k-means Density-Based Spatial Clustering Applications with Noise (DBSCAN). Euclidean metric accumulated Equivalent Cycle Number (ECN) sequence shows better performance similarity-based data than Dynamic Time Wrapping (DTW) distance fading trajectory. experimental results indicate that can provide using 5% good R2 score 0.98.

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Abstract: This research paper investigates the transformative role of graphene and advanced nanomaterials in development next-generation energy storage systems, focusing on their potential to revolutionize battery technologies support global sustainability. By examining unique physicochemical properties nanomaterialssuch as high surface area, electrical conductivity, mechanical strengththe study explores how innovations graphene, carbon nanotubes, metal oxides, 2D materials are enhancing performance, efficiency, lifespan lithium-ion, solid-state, supercapacitor-based systems. The also addresses breakthroughs nanostructured electrode electrolyte design, synthesis techniques, integration with smart management Through a comprehensive analysis recent experimental industrial advancements, this work highlights nanotechnology is paving way for safer, faster-charging, more environmentally friendly solutions vital electric mobility, renewable integration, grid resilience. Keywords: Energy storage, Graphene, Nanomaterials, Next-generation batteries, Lithium-ion Solid-state Supercapacitor... Read More

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Power storage module design with improved gas venting to prevent internal pressure buildup and cell damage. The module has a housing with multiple cells and through holes connecting them to the outside. A duct cover seals the cell exhaust openings. The cover has discrete protrusions facing the cell-free areas of the housing. This allows gas to escape through the holes when cells vent, preventing blockage by the duct cover collapsing. The protrusions stop gas flow from other cells. This ensures venting even if the cover is deformed from impact.

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Battery pack design for electric vehicles that improves energy density, mechanical rigidity, and space utilization compared to conventional packs. The pack has a unique arrangement of battery modules inside a case. Each module has battery cells arranged in one direction, enclosed in a case with beams between the cells. The modules are fixed to the cover of the pack instead of a separate tray. This eliminates gaps, beams, and covers inside the pack. Cooling is integrated into the module base plate. The pack cover has a water channel to circulate cooling fluid around the modules. This reduces heat transfer path, parts, and space compared to separate heatsinks.

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Thermal management system for electric vehicle battery packs that provides efficient cooling and heating without adding significant weight or cost. The system uses a network of flexible tubes connecting intake and exhaust manifolds with channels tuned for even fluid flow distribution. It allows direct contact cooling/heating of individual battery cells by conforming tubes passing between them. The system connects to a pump and heat exchanger for circulating fluid through the pack. The flexible tubes fill and bleed easily for installation. The manifold design prevents fluid bypassing and ensures full inflation.

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Aging experiments are pivotal for car manufacturers to ensure the reliability of their battery cells. However, realistic aging methods time-consuming and resource-intensive, necessitating accelerated techniques. While these techniques reduce testing time, they can also lead distorted results due partially reversible nature cell behavior, which stems from inhomogenization rehomogenization conducting salt lithium distribution in electrode. To accurately capture phenomena, relaxation must be incorporated into test design. This work investigates impact procedure several stress factors, namely depth discharge C- rate, on formation inhomogeneities. The experimental reveal increasing inhomogenization, leading growing capacity losses, particularly under conditions with shorter cycling interruptions (check ups rest phases). These losses associated a significant reduction cycle life performance up 400 identical but interruptions. Similar trends observed depths C-rates. Optimized recovery cycles effectively mitigate doubling stability without requiring considerable additional time. Furthermore,... Read More

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Positive electrode material for all-solid-state lithium batteries with improved cycle life when using sulfur-based cathodes. The material consists of composite particles containing sulfur as the active material within a porous conductive matrix. The surface of the composite particles is coated with an electronic conductor. This configuration provides a conductive path through the composite particles to improve cycle durability compared to bare sulfur particles. The composite particles are made by mixing sulfur and the porous conductive material, heating to melt and fill the pores, then coating the surface.

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Charging system for batteries that optimizes charging efficiency by dynamically controlling temperature during charging operations. The system monitors the external power source's output and compares it with the previous output value during charging. When the current output value exceeds the previous one, the system adjusts the battery temperature target based on the current output value. This approach prevents the repetitive stopping and restarting of charging operations that can occur when the target temperature is updated too frequently. The system maintains the target temperature at a previously set value when the output value does not exceed the previous one, ensuring consistent charging conditions.

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Secondary battery with improved lifespan and charge rates by using fiberized binder in the positive electrode and granules in the negative electrode. The positive electrode has a fiberized binder that binds the active material and conductive material, while the negative electrode uses granules of active material bound by a binder. This balances the electrochemical reaction rates of the electrodes for improved overall battery lifespan.

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Battery module with enhanced thermal management through strategically integrated phase change materials (PCMs) that absorb heat generated in critical battery connections. The module features a bus bar with integrated phase change members that distribute heat from connecting areas between the cell tab and bus bar, while a secondary phase change member is positioned on the top surface of the cell. This dual-phase design enables targeted cooling of high-temperature areas, particularly the connecting region between the cell tab and bus bar, while maintaining overall system thermal balance. The phase change materials are designed to absorb and release heat efficiently, preventing thermal runaway and fire hazards.

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Electric vehicle power supply layout to improve cooling and ripple current absorption. The power supply components like inverters are arranged in an alternating pattern of power cards and link capacitors along a main axis. This interleaving improves cooling by creating channels between the components for airflow. It also reduces ripple currents by absorbing them in the link capacitors and isolating them from the power cards.

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Diagnosing abnormalities in voltage behavior of batteries based on changes in differences between measured open circuit voltage data and estimated open circuit voltage data over time. The method involves generating open circuit voltage (OCV) data from the battery, deriving estimated OCV data based on the measured data, and diagnosing battery health based on the difference between the measured and estimated OCV values. This allows detecting subtle voltage abnormalities even when the battery voltage itself doesn't change significantly.

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Diagnosing lithium-ion battery degradation during charging using resistance measurements. The method involves monitoring voltage changes during charging to calculate resistance of each battery cell. Resistance variations indicate degradation like lithium plating. By calculating average resistances for each SOC class, probabilities of abnormal cells can be determined. This allows diagnosing cells during normal charging without extended rests.

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An electric vehicle with a battery deterioration monitoring system that provides an easily accessible and tamper-proof display of battery degradation level. The system includes a battery gauge to measure the battery's state of charge, a battery deterioration meter to measure battery degradation level, and a display integrated into the vehicle's dashboard. The display shows the battery charge and degradation levels. This allows drivers to easily monitor both charge and degradation without needing external equipment. The display prevents tampering by being integrated into the vehicle's electrical system.

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Secondary battery with integrated safety vent mechanism that enables repeated use of the battery's venting system. The battery features a case with an open side and a cap plate with a vent hole. A safety vent is positioned on the cap plate, comprising multiple layers that can be magnetically controlled to seal or open the vent. This design allows the battery to be charged and discharged multiple times while maintaining its venting capabilities. The safety vent's magnetic biasing system enables precise control over venting behavior, ensuring safe operation even after multiple charge cycles.

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Carbon structure for lithium-sulfur batteries with enhanced sulfur retention and improved electrode performance. The structure features a highly graphitic porous carbon matrix with a concave center surface that supports sulfur, while maintaining electrical conductivity. The structure is prepared through a metallothermic reduction process followed by acid etching, resulting in a stable sulfur-containing carbon matrix that suppresses shuttle phenomenon and maintains electrode shape during charging and discharging. The carbon matrix has a specific surface area and pore structure optimized for sulfur retention and electrical conductivity.

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A separator for lithium-ion batteries with improved heat resistance, thermal stability, and cycle life compared to conventional separators. The separator comprises a nanocellulose coating on a porous substrate with a surface tension ratio of 0.68 or higher. The nanocellulose can have modified groups like amines, carboxylic acids, sulfonic acids, borates, or phosphates. This enhances heat resistance and bonding strength. An adhesive layer can also be added to prevent coating delamination. The separator enables high energy density, safety, and cycle life in lithium-ion batteries.

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A heat exchanger design for cooling batteries in electric vehicles that provides more uniform cooling compared to traditional heat exchangers. The heat exchanger has two main flows, one for cooling the battery and another for circulating refrigerant. The refrigerant flow has multiple paths that branch and reconnect, allowing the refrigerant to move in parallel between the battery and the main flow. This creates a more complex flow path that promotes more uniform heat transfer between the battery and the refrigerant, which helps prevent hot spots and improves cooling efficiency.

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An assembled battery design that prevents state-of-charge (SOC) variations during charging by optimizing electrode positioning. The battery comprises stacked cells connected in series, where the negative-electrode composite layer is positioned above the positive-electrode active material layer. By maintaining the negative-electrode layer above the positive-electrode layer, the battery achieves improved state-of-charge uniformity during charging by minimizing electrode contact resistance. This design addresses the conventional issue of SOC variations in series-connected batteries by ensuring the negative-electrode layer remains above the positive-electrode layer during charging.

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Manufacturing lithium secondary batteries with enhanced capacity retention and reduced gas generation through controlled activation. The method employs constant current charging until the charge cut-off voltage, followed by constant voltage charging. This approach prevents premature activation of the lithium-rich manganese-based oxide (LiMn2O3) phase during activation, which typically leads to abnormal capacity behavior and gas generation. The activation process is performed under pressurization conditions to minimize non-activated Li2MnO3 phase formation and prevent lithium precipitation.

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Reducing moisture in a secondary battery manufacturing process to improve battery performance and reduce costs. The method involves circulating dehumidified air in a controlled sequence through the battery assembly steps based on their required dew points. This prevents moisture mixing into the battery components. The sequence starts with the battery assembly step where the lowest dew point is required, then the negative electrode step, and finally the positive electrode step. This reduces the need for uniformly low dew points throughout the process. By targeting dew points based on specific steps, it allows using a single dehumidifier instead of multiple ones.

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An all-solid-state battery with improved charge/discharge efficiency and lifespan compared to conventional solid-state batteries. The battery uses a coating layer made of a porous network of intertwined fibrous carbon that is coated with an inorganic electrolyte. This coating layer is sandwiched between the anode current collector and the solid electrolyte. The coating provides balanced ionic and electronic conductivity, eliminating the need for a separate anode active material. The coated porous carbon network allows lithium intercalation/deintercalation without internal short circuits, improving cycling stability.

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System and control methodology for heating and charging battery packs using AC power, enabling rapid and efficient thermal management. The system integrates AC power delivery with a temperature-controlled heating circuit, where the heating element is controlled by a temperature sensor. The charging circuit includes rectifier switches, a transformer, and a series switch. During charging, the charging circuit injects AC current into the battery through the series switch, while the heating circuit injects DC current through a transformer and series switch. This synchronized operation ensures uniform heat distribution across the battery pack.

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High-ionic-conductivity solid electrolyte for lithium-ion batteries that can be produced by sintering at low temperatures. The solid electrolyte contains an oxide with the general formula Li6-xR1-y-aAy-bMx(BO3)3, where R is a rare earth element, A is an alkali or transition metal, M is a tetravalent element, and x, y, a, and b are real numbers. The electrolyte exhibits specific X-ray diffraction peaks with a certain angular separation. This composition and structure allows high ionic conductivity when sintered at low temperatures compared to traditional sulfide-based electrolytes.

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Energy storage cell design to prevent thermal runaway propagation between cells in high-density batteries like lithium-ion. The cell has an electrode/separator assembly inside a housing with a covering made of porous material between the assembly and housing. The porous covering allows heat transfer between the hotter assembly and cooler housing walls. It prevents insulating layers from trapping heat and stops excessive temperatures in one cell from spreading to others.

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